Ethic
Definition
The meaning of
ethic (singular) is a system of moral principles or rules of behaviour. While
the meaning of ethics (plural) is the branch of philisophy that deals with
moral principles.
Principles
Of Ethic
The expression
"basic ethical principles" refers to those general judgments that
serve as a justification for particular ethical prescriptions and evaluations
of human actions.
Three basic
principles, among those generally accepted in our cultural tradition, are
particularly relevant to the ethics of research involving human subjects: the
principles of respect of persons, beneficence and justice. These are based on
the Belmont Report.
1.
Respect for Persons.
Respect
for persons incorporates at least two ethical convictions: first, that
individuals should be treated as autonomous agents, and second, that persons
with diminished autonomy are entitled to protection. The principle of respect
for persons thus divides into two separate moral requirements: the requirement
to acknowledge autonomy and the requirement to protect those with diminished
autonomy.
2.
Beneficence.
Persons
are treated in an ethical manner not only by respecting their decisions and
protecting them from harm, but also by making efforts to secure their
well-being. Such treatment falls under the principle of beneficence. Two
general rules have been formulated as complementary expressions of beneficent
actions in this sense: (1) do not harm and (2) maximize possible benefits and
minimize possible harms. As with all hard cases, the different claims covered
by the principle of beneficence may come into conflict and force difficult
choices.
3.
Justice.
Who
ought to receive the benefits of research and bear its burdens? This is a
question of justice, in the sense of “fairness in distribution” or “what is
deserved.” An injustice occurs when some benefit to which a person is entitled
is denied without good reason or when some burden is imposed unduly. Another
way of conceiving the principle of justice is that equals ought to be treated
equally.
Bases
Of Theory Ethical
For individuals, the ethical theory they employ
for decision making guidance emphasizes aspects
of an ethical dilemma important to them and leads them to the most ethically
correct resolution according to the guidelines within the ethical theory
itself. Four broad categories of ethical theory include deontology,
utilitarianism, rights, and virtues.
Deontology
The deontological
class of ethical theories states that people should adhere to their obligations
and duties when engaged in decision making when ethics are in play. This means that a person will follow his or her
obligations to another individual or society because upholding one’s duty is what is considered
ethically correct. For instance, a deontologist
will always keep his promises to a friend and will follow the law. A
person who adheres to deontological theory will produce very consistent
decisions since they will be based on the individual’s set duties.
Utilitarianism
Utilitarian ethical
theories are based on one’s ability to predict the consequences of an action.
To a utilitarian, the choice that yields the greatest benefit to the most
people is the one that is ethically correct. There are two types of
utilitarianism, act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. Act utilitarianism
subscribes precisely to the definition of utilitarianism a person performs the
acts that benefit the most people, regardless of personal feelings or the societal constraints such as
laws. Rule utilitarianism takes into account the law and is concerned with
fairness. A rule utilitarian seeks to benefit the most people but through the fairest and most just means
available. Therefore, added benefits of rule utilitarianism are that it values
justice and includes beneficence at the same time.
Rights
In ethical theories
based on rights, the rights established by a society are protected and given
the highest priority. Rights are considered to be ethically correct and valid
since a large population endorses them. Individuals may also bestow rights upon
others if they have the ability and resources to do so. For example, a person
may say that her friend may borrow her laptop for the afternoon. The friend who
was given the ability to borrow the laptop now has a right to the laptop in the
afternoon.
Virtue
The virtue ethical
theory judges a person by his/her character rather than by an action that may
deviate from his/her normal behavior. It takes the person’s morals, reputation,
and motivation into account when rating an unusual and irregular behavior that
is considered unethical. For instance, if a person plagiarized a passage that
was later detected by a peer, the peer who knows the person well will
understand the person’s character and will judge the friend accordingly. If the
plagiarizer normally follows the rules and has good standing amongst his
colleagues, the peer who encounters the plagiarized passage may be able to
judge his friend more leniently. Perhaps the researcher had a late night and
simply forgot to credit his or her source appropriately. Conversely, a person
who has a reputation for academic misconduct is more likely to be judged harshly
for plagiarizing because of his/her consistent past of unethical behavior.
Egoism
Egoism (or Ethical
Egoism) is the ethical position that moral agents ought to do what is in their
own self-interest. This is quite different from Psychological Egoism (the claim
that people can only act in their own self-interest) and from Rational Egoism
(the claim that it is rational to act in one's self-interest). Egoism as a
normative position makes claims about what one ought to do, rather than
describes what one does do. A belief that one should be honest, just,
benevolent, etc, because those virtues serve one's self-interest is Egoistic; a
belief that one should practice those virtues for reasons other than
self-interest is not Egoistic.
Egoism is a form of
Individualism (an outlook that stresses human independence and the importance
of individual self-reliance and liberty), and can be the philosophical basis
for support for some forms of Libertarianism or Anarchism (political positions
based partly on a belief that individuals should not coercively prevent others
from exercising freedom of action).
Individual Egoism
holds that all people should do whatever benefits the individual. Personal
Egoism holds that the individual should act in his own self-interest, but makes
no claims about what anyone else ought to do. Universal Egoism holds that
everyone should act in ways that are in their own interest.
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